What is "consciousness" in Buddhism?

Dhr. Seven, Amber Larson, Crystal Quintero (eds.), Wisdom Quarterly; Ven. Nyanatiloka Maha Thera, Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines (viññāna)

Buddhas of the past, sacred Dambulla cave, Sri Lanka (inquiringmind.com)

.

How are living beings conscious? (WHP)

"Consciousness" is one of the Five Groups [that comprise] Existence (Five Aggregates of Clinging). It is one of the Four Nutriments. It is the third link of the causal chain on the arising of suffering called Dependent Origination. It is the fifth in the sixfold division of elements.

Viewed as one of the Five Aggregates [trillions of discrete phenomena lumped into five groups or categories], it is inseparably linked with the three other mental aggregates (feeling, perception, and formations) and furnishes the bare cognition of the object, while the other three contribute more specific functions.

Conscious awareness (dhammawheel.com)

Its moral and karmic character, and its greater or lesser degree of intensity and clarity, are chiefly determined by the mental formations associated with it (particularly the most salient formation, "volition" or cetana, which determines if a karmic act is beneficial, unwholesome, or neutral).

 

Just like the other aggregates or "groups of existence," consciousness is not so much a thing as a flux (sotā, a "stream of consciousness") and does not constitute an abiding mind-substance. 

Free your mind. Rest will follow.

Nor is it in any way a transmigrating soul, entity, or abiding self, even though it is commonly regarded as such by ordinary uninstructed worldlings not yet freed of ignorance regarding existence. Arhats, the noble ones, who gain knowledge and vision recognize it for what it is and are freed of suffering, which is called enlightenment, the realization of nirvana, "the end of all suffering").

The Three Marks or Characteristics of Existence (the impermanent, unsatisfactory/disappointing/woeful, and impersonal nature of all conditioned phenomena) are frequently applied to consciousness in the texts (e.g., in the Anattalakkhana Sutra, S.XXII, 59).

The physical base of the "mind" is the heart (K)

The Buddha often stresses that "apart from conditions, there is no arising of consciousness" (MN 38). And all of these statements about its nature hold good for the entire range of consciousness -- be it "past, future, or presently arisen, gross or subtle, in oneself or another, that is, internal or external, inferior or lofty, far or near" (S. XXII, 59).

  

Six consciousnesses

The seven main chakras,energy centers, along the spine (Manifesto-Meditations)

 
According to the six senses it divides into six kinds: eye- (or visual), ear- (auditory), nose- (olfactory), tongue- (gustatory), body- (tangible), mind- (mental, intuitive, memory, psychic) consciousness. 

 

About the dependent origination or arising of these six kinds of consciousness, the Path of Purification (Vis.M. XV, 39) says: 

• "Conditioned through the [sense base or sensitive portion within the] eye, the visible object, light, and attention, eye-consciousness arises.
• Conditioned through the ear, the audible object, the ear-passage, and attention, ear-consciousness arises.
• Conditioned, through the nose, the olfactive object, air, and attention, nose-consciousness arises.
• Conditioned through the tongue, the gustative object, humidity, and attention, tongue-consciousness arises.
• Conditioned through the body, bodily impression, the earth-element [the solid quality of materiality or rupa], and attention, body-consciousness arises.
• Conditioned through the subconscious [or default, underlying] mind (bhavanga-mano [manas, mind]), the mind-object, and attention, mind-consciousness arises."

The Abhidharma literature distinguishes 89 classes of consciousness as being either karmically wholesome (skillful), unwholesome (unskillful), or neutral, and belonging either to the Sensual Sphere, the Fine-Material Sphere, or the Immaterial Sphere, or to supermundane consciousness. See Table I for the detailed classification.

Comedian Russell Brand on "Mind Shift" (video)

Xochitl, Amber Larson, Wisdom Quarterly; Daniel Pinchbeck ("Mind Shift," Gaiam TV)

Brand with the Dalai Lama

(GaiamTV) Daniel Pinchbeck interviews comedian and actor Russell Brand ("Messiah Complex"), who alludes to ex-wife Katy Perry when he gently jokes about our Reptilian Overlords, whom he laughs about as being just another frequency like us. Also in this episode, feminist and activist Eve Ensler ("V-Day," "Vagina Monologues") brings progressive momentum to the show promoting kindness and egalitarianism.

Distortions of the Mind (sutra)

Dhr. Seven and Amber Larson, Wisdom Quarterly translation (Vipallasa Sutra, AN 4.49)

The "distortions" (vipallasas) can be called the hallucinations, perversions, inversions.

 

Candy eye (lilminx16/deviantart)

Earlier we asked, What is art? Is it a cartoon, an illusion... or an attempt to see things the way they really are? 

Art can sensitize us even as it distorts and emphasizes. Perception is how we look at the world we create every moment without realizing we're creating as we're choosing what to notice or how to interpret (cognize) it. Art, like meditation, may sensitize and teach us to clear our mental perception -- our preconceptions and distortions. (See sutra and explanation below).

"Meditators, there are four distortions of perception, distortions of mind (heart), distortions of view. What are the four? 

Saara sees (Arkiharha/weekday-illusion)

"To regard as 'permanent' what is actually impermanent is the distortion of perception, distortion of mind, distortion of view.
 
"To regard as 'fulfilling' what is actually disappointing...

"To regard as 'personal' what is actually impersonal (anatta)...

"To regard as 'attractive' what is actually unattractive is the distortion of perception, distortion of mind, distortion of view. These are the four distortions of perception, distortions of mind, distortions of view.

 
The Undistorted

The Buddha distorted to reflect iridescent colors on drilled metal surface

 

Psychedelic (-william/flickr.com)

"There are four non-distortions of perception, non-distortions of mind, non-distortions of view. What are the four? 

"To regard as 'impermanent' what is actually impermanent is the non-distortion of perception, non-distortion of mind, non-distortion of view. 

"To regard as 'disappointing' what is actually disappointing...

"To regard as 'impersonal' what is actually impersonal...

"To regard as 'unattractive' what is actually unattractive is the non-distortion of perception, non-distortion of mind, non-distortion of view.

 

"These are the four non-distortions of perception, non-distortions of mind, non-distortions of view."

    

"Perceiving permanence in the impermanent, fulfillment in the disappointing, self in the impersonal, attractiveness in the unattractive -- beings, brought to ruin by wrong-view, become imbalanced, go out of their minds.

 

Mara has his eye on us (lilminx16)

"Bound by Mara's noose, from that noose [snare, threat of death] they find no rest. Instead, beings continue wandering on, going to rebirth and death.

 

"But when Enlightened Ones arise in the world and bring light into the world, they proclaim the Dharma [the path to liberation] leading to the cessation of disappointment (dukkha, suffering).

"When those with wisdom (insight) listen, they regain their senses and see the impermanent as impermanent, the disappointing as disappointing, the impersonal as impersonal, and the unattractive as unattractive.

"Undertaking right-view, they go beyond all disappointment and unhappiness."

• Explanation of the discourse (Andrew Olendzki)

The Perversions explained

Ven. Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary

What is art? (Saara/flickr.com)

The "perversions" or "distortions" are four, which may be either:

• of perception (saññā-vipallāsa)
  
• of consciousness (citta-vipallāsa)
  
• or of views (ditthi-vipallāsa).
  

What are they? The four are seeing or regarding:

1. what is impermanent (anicca) as permanent;
2. what is painful (dukkha) as pleasant (or happiness-yielding);
3. what is without a self (anattā) as a self;
4. what is impure (ugly, asubha) as pure or beautiful'' (A.IV.49).

Ah, is that how I was seeing things?

"Of the distortions, the following are eliminated by the first path-knowledge (stream-entry, sotāpatti): the distortions of perception, consciousness, and views, that the impermanent is permanent and what is not a self is a self; further, the distortion of views that the painful is pleasant, and the impure is pure.
 
By the third path-knowledge (non-returning, anāgāmitā) are eliminated: the distortions of perception and consciousness that the impure is pure.
 
By the fourth path-knowledge (full-enlightenment, arahatta) are eliminated the distortions of perception and consciousness that the painful is pleasant" (Path of Purification, Vis.M. XXII, 68).

• My cartoon ART is your perception
• Hating China in Vietnam
• U.S. warns China to knock it off 
• China blames Vietnam 
• Mr. Winslet’s aristocratic ex-wife turns to Hinduism In a move uncannily like the plot of Kate Winslet’s film "Hideous Kinky," her husband Ned Rocknroll’s ex-wife has become fascinated with Hinduism...

THRIVE: What On Earth Will It Take? (video)

Pat Macpherson, CC Liu, Wisdom Quarterly; ThriveMovement.com

The world is waking up, but what on Earth will it take to finally THRIVE?

There was no "Big Bang" (audio)

Dhr. Seven, Ashley Wells, CC Liu, Wisdom Quarterly; Mitch Jeserich, KPFA Berkeley, 3-19-14

A first point, a first cause, a prime move(r) -- the Big Bang is no better than positing an all-powerful God who did it, yet we fool ourselves by using words to say nothing.

  

Recent reports of a major "breakthrough" on inflation less than a trillionth of a second after the purported Big Bang are exaggerated, but for good reason: There are Nobel Prizes at stake.
 

No doubt banging has gone on in space, big banging worse than the worst gang banging at The Bada Bing in Jersey. Nevertheless, there was no BIG Bang, a beginning to everything. Recently a scientist was being interviewed (maybe on NPR audio or C2C) and admitted that "the Big Bang" was not the beginning of everything, just the beginning of our ability to find a beginning, the edge of the knowable. What a gyp.

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Buddhist cosmology: 31 Planes of Existence

We were not all raised with the fantasy-tale that science had an answer to the origin of the universe? But now there are multiverses, and scientific uncertainty is expressed more openly, and even if a Big Bang occurred ~13 billion years ago, that in no way says that was IT, that was the beginning of all, the first cause.
 
There is no sensible or meaningful first cause, and one would become deranged pondering such a question. It is one of the Four Imponderables in Buddhism -- which not only would never lead one to enlightenment but would certainly, if persisted in, drive one to madness. Here is a simple analogy to see why: A professor starts drawing a circle on a chalkboard, and after the 33rd loop asks the class,
 

Count chalk loops or watch me pole dance.

"Where does this circle start?"
 
"Wherever you first placed the chalk," they answer.
 

"Where was that?"
 

"Hmmm, we didn't notice."
 

"Where does it start now?"
 

"Well, after you started it -- at some arbitrary point -- it ceases to have a meaningful 'beginning.' Any point, pick a point. Is that your point?"
 

"Yes, if you track and analyze the chalk marks, undoing each of the 33 or million loops to reveal incontrovertible forensic evidence of the first track, the original loop, what will it get you?"
 

"It will tell us exactly where you first set the chalk down!"
 

"And what will that tell you about the beginning of a circle?"
 

"Of a circle, nothing. But of this circle, nothing... Hey, wait a minute!"
 

"Exactly! This won't tell you who or what set it, or why, or where chalkboards come from, or what chalk is for, or anything else that matters about our existence. It will only lead to endless speculations and enduring academic careers that result in nothing about the true nature of existence (such as the Three Marks or how YOU or your life, such as it is, came to be).

 

A better bang to find

"But if one were to meditate, one could potentially see for oneself how things (galaxies, universes, and people) originate, turn, and fall away -- again and again and again."
 

It is possible with Buddhist meditation on the Four Elements (not four material things but four primary or fundamental qualities of materiality) to begin to see the ultimate "particles" of perception (called, in Buddhist physics, kalapas). One can go from the smallest, these features of matter, to the most cosmic -- world expansions and world contractions. And what is another word for the transition between those two periods (aeons) than a Big Bang?
 

There is a Big Bang, but there was no "the Big Bang," no beginning. And if we crave to know about the first in the endless cyclical series, it would tell us nothing of the space it blew up or into or created as it blew, or the matter that burst into expansion (inflation), or subsequently collapsed and caused yet another implosion, which gives rise to another explosion.
 

Hmm, maybe lines and symbols?

Worst of all, assuming the insanity for pondering this imponderable is not the worst thing, you and science will be none the closer to finding or figuring out "how it all began." Keep blowing up infinitesimally small particles at CERN/LHC instead.

India declares DOLPHINS "non-human persons"

Amber Larson, Wisdom Quarterly; TheMindUnleashed.com (facebook.com)

Dolphins can sleep with half their brain and can therefore stay awake for at least two weeks (S.D. McCulloch/earthsky.org)

Dolphins (Jesslee Cuizon/earthsky.org)

India’s Ministry of Environment and Forests has decided to forbid the keeping of captive dolphins for public entertainment anywhere in the country.

 

In a policy statement released Friday, the ministry advised state governments to reject any proposal to establish a dolphinarium “by any person / persons, organizations, government agencies, private or public enterprises that involves import, capture of cetacean species to establish for commercial entertainment, private or public exhibition and interaction purposes whatsoever.” Why?

Social dolphins (cutepictures.co)

“Whereas cetaceans in general are highly intelligent and sensitive, and various scientists who have researched dolphin behavior have suggested that the unusually high intelligence; as compared to other animals means that dolphins should be seen as ‘non-human persons’ and as such should have their own specific rights and is morally unacceptable to keep them captive for entertainment purpose,” the ministry said....

India and landlocked Nepal have an indigenous freshwater Ganges river dolphin.

 

(Jessa Gamble/lastwordonnothing.com)

[This] happened back in May and somehow escaped worldwide attention and the 24-hour media hoopla. The effort to re-categorize cetaceans (dolphins, whales, porpoises) as non-human persons has been gathering steam since a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2011, when a group of philosophers, conservationists, and animal behaviorists attempted to gather wide support for a Declaration of Rights for Cetaceans from the scientific community.

 

The Declaration for Dolphins

1. 

   The cetacea, evolving family (wiki)

   Every individual cetacean has the right to life.
2. No cetacean should be held in captivity or servitude; be subject to cruel treatment; or be removed from their natural environment.
3. All cetaceans have the right to freedom of movement and residence within their natural environment.
4. No cetacean is the property of any state, corporation, human group, or individual.
5. Cetaceans have the right to the protection of their natural environment.
6. Cetaceans have the right not to be subject to the disruption of their cultures.
7. The rights, freedoms, and norms set forth in this Declaration should be protected under international and domestic law.

And what does it mean to say an animal has “rights”? More

Mindfulness: Business and Behavioral Sciences

CC Liu, Pat Macpherson, Wisdom Quarterly; KPCC (SCPR.org), The Drucker School of Management at Claremont Graduate University, The Crawford Family Forum

Mindfulness - where business and the behavioral sciences intersect

Innovation and creativity are understood as necessary skills for thriving in a dynamic economy, but what is often left out is the role of transforming the mind itself -- as the Buddha recommended.

Today's overwhelming challenges require leaders to move beyond "being effective" to fundamentally change themselves and how they see and relate to the world. How can individuals and organizations let go of ego and transform mindsets to evoke creativity, productivity, and innovation?

In this edition of Southern California Public Radio's Drucker Business Forum series SCPR hears about a new model for creative and productive leaders, a model in which innovation is actually a complete mentality, not a business-led process.

Nick Udall, Ph.D., is CEO of nowhere (now-here.com) and chair of the World Economic Forum's Global Agenda Council on New Models of Leadership, puts it this way: leaders have to "stop taking up space and start making and holding space" to help their organizations deal with facing the unknown.  They must turn the notion of leadership on its head and move beyond their own egos. Udall sits down with Drucker School Assistant Professor of Practice Jeremy Hunter, Ph.D. (Claremont Graduate University, co-author chapter "Making the Mindful Leader: Cultivating Skills for Facing Adaptive Challenges" in the new The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Leadership, Change, and Organizational Development.  They will explore how transforming the way leaders and groups relate, learn, and organize can lead to new patterns of thought and innovative action.

This insightful conversation will draw on their personal and organizational skills to show how awareness, perception, consciousness, and mindfulness can lead to more purposeful, sustainable, innovative -- and successful -- organizations.

 

Nick Udall works with CEOs and executive leaders of global businesses to develop breakthrough strategies and build cultures of innovation; Chair of the World Economic Forum's Global Agenda Council on New Models of Leadership. His new book, Riding the Creative Rollercoaster: How Leaders Evoke Creativity, Productivity and Innovation, is out this month.

• WATCH live video stream, 8:30-9:30 am Feb. 13, 2014
• After event, let's go drink at DUMB Starbucks
• Cop goes undercover to talk to suspect in custody

Wild Mushroom Fair, Los Angeles (review)

Editors, Wisdom Quarterly; LAmushrooms.org; Arboretum.org; GaryLincoff.com

Author and expert Gary Lincoff, left, led a mushroom-hunting foray at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx (Alan Zale/The New York Times).

Wild Mushroom Fair (LAMS)

It was amazing. Mycologist Gary Lincoff (New York Botanical Gardens, author of The Complete Mushroom Hunter Illustrated and other popular texts) not only led everyone on a wild mushroom hunt that turned up more mushrooms than foragers are finding in Northern California, he made known a view so radical, so unbelievable, so staggering in its implications that botanists will scoff and come around decades from now.

It has long been believed that there were plant producers, plant hunters, and plant decomposers, mushrooms falling into the last category.

It is not the case. Mushrooms "hunt," and they produce. They can lasso a nematode to source their own nitrate. And rotifers, watch out. The secret is in the mycelium and mycorrhizae.

(BBC) "The Secret Life of Plants" mushroom hunting nematodes

That is not the bombshell. Tests were done after Lincoff and others wondered how Douglas fir were getting nitrate, a necessary fertilizer not found in the unfertilized soil when they grew in nature. It turned out to be the mycelium -- the massive mushroom root network, Nature's fist World Wide Web and Internet, as pointed out by Paul Stamets (Fungi Perfecti), who is proving that environmental reclamation using mushrooms is the way to clean up oil spills and radiation hazards.

Gary Lincoff, Shroomfest 2011: The Philosopher's Stone or How Mushrooms Can Save

You Thousands of Dollars in Therapy and Free You from the Prison of Time and Space.

Goddess (Mochiunagi/flickr)

Douglas firs do not stand in isolation from their environment or each other; they are utterly interdependent. If radiactively marked carbon is placed in one, it will also end up in another. How did it get there? They did not share it via their roots; the mycelium did. The mycelium takes care of the entire forest!

Now here's the bombshell: Every expression of green plants we so prize and esteem may just be the external manifestation of mushrooms because plants so depend on mycological support as to not be able to survive and thrive in the absence of the symbiotic relationship. But, botanists will argue, there are plants that are without mycelium vastly expanding and contributing to their root systems. The secret is that there are no plants without mushroom cells inside their tissue. These cells seem to be controlling what is going on more than the plants. We know a great more than we used 30 years ago, yet we know next to nothing about how amazing mushrooms are.

A few Buddhist mushroom references

The Mushroom Matrix (karma4ya.deviantart.com)

 

Wisdom Quarterly asked Lincoff about a little known reference to mushrooms in the Buddhist sutras. Of course, everyone knows the story of the Buddha's passing from eating mushrooms -- which one of our readers suggests were likely Amanita phalloides. (Do pigs eat this deadly variety?)

In Pork? Mushroom? How the Buddha Died we wonder aloud about the Buddha as vegetarian fed bad mushrooms by Cunda the Blacksmith. Some say he was fed pork, others that it was tender mushrooms loved by pork. "What about the more likely cause being Amanita phalloides? So many Amanita muscaria tells left by the ancient Buddhists and Indo-Aryans, and yet your eyes remain closed."

Musha Cay (pinterest.com)

The more amazing reference we asked Lincoff about was whether or not mycelium is edible, because one day the ancient Buddhist monastics in one district in India were starving as a result of a famine. They had to travel far to find a meager alms offerings to sustain themselves. Then the Buddha's chief male disciple, "foremost in psychic powers," offered a solution. Maha Moggallana asked the Buddha if it wouldn't be good for him to use his miraculous powers to either make the long road very short for those traveling on it to go outside the famine area or -- and here's the stunner -- perhaps taking his hand like a giant earth mover and turning over the earth to reveal a great wealth of food growing underground.

What could this be a reference to other than mycelium? Gary Lincoff concurred that mycelium is not only edible and nutritious, it tastes good. To illustrate this, Lincoff pointed out that during a time when mushrooms were not coming up, Campbell's Cream of Mushroom soup was made almost entirely of mycelium with a few bits of the fruiting body tossed in so no one would question it. The taste was great, and no one noticed. (Another apparent and more amazing reference to mushrooms and mycelium is found in the "Origins of Human Life on Earth Sutra," the Aganna Sutta.

The world, the world! (sutra)

Amber Larson and Dhr. Seven (eds.), Wisdom Quarterly; F.L. Woodward (trans.), Kindred Sayings, The Chapter on Channa and Others (Samyutta Nikaya, IV, Pali Text Society)

Saving the world, protesting economic and social injustices, Occupy L.A. (Wisdom Quarterly)

  

(84) Ven. Ananda came to see the Exalted One [Buddha]...and asked:

"'The world! The world!' it is said. venerable sir, please explain, how far does this saying go?"

"Ananda, what is transitory (paloka-dhamma = bhijjanaka, worldly phenomena, impermanent) by nature is called 'the world' in this noble doctrine and discipline [Arya-Dhamma-Vinaya].

 

"And what, Ananda, is transitory by nature? The eye, Ananda, is transitory by nature...visible objects... [The same is said for all six senses including the] mind is transitory by nature, mind-states, mind-consciousness, mind-contact [contact = the coming together of sense base, sense object, AND consciousness], whatever pleasure or pain (weal or woe) or neutral state experienced arises owing to mind-contact -- that, too, is transitory by nature. 

"Ananda, what is transitory by nature is called 'the world' in this noble doctrine and discipline."

Empty (void)

(85) Then Ven. Ananda...said to the Exalted One: "'The world IS empty! The world is empty!' it is said. Venerable sir, how far does this saying go?"

"Ananda, because the world is devoid of a self or anything belonging to a self (atta-niya, a self's property or possessions), therefore it is said, 'The world is empty.' And what, Ananda, is devoid of a self or what belongs to a self?

"Eye, visible objects, eye-consciousness... mind, mind-objects, mind consciousness are devoid of a self. Ananda, that is why it is said, 'The world is empty!'"

In Brief

Massive, sitting, golden Shakyamuni Buddha statue, Thailand (WQ)

 

(86) ...Then Ven. Ananda said to the Exalted One: "Well, for me, venerable sir, if the Exalted One would teach me a teaching in brief, a teaching which on hearing from the Exalted One I might dwell solitary, remote, earnest, ardent, and aspiring."

 

"Now what do you think, Ananda? Is the eye permanent or impermanent?" -- "Impermanent, venerable sir."

"What is impermanent, is that pleasant or painful (weal or woe)?" "Painful, venerable sir."

"Now what is impermanent, painful (woeful, disappointing), changeable by nature, is it fitting to regard that as, 'This is mine. This I am. This is my self'?" -- "Surely not, venerable sir."

 

"Eye, visible objects, eye-consciousness, eye-contact -- is that permanent or impermanent?" [This same is said of all six senses, types of sense objects, consciousness, and contact between the three].

"Then of what is impermanent, disappointing, and changeable by nature, is it fitting to regard that as, 'This is mine. This I am. This is my self'?" -- "Surely not, venerable sir."

"So seeing, Ananda, the well-taught noble disciple... [is] freed of conceits; one grasps at nothing in the world [does not cling to anything in the world or anything regarding an illusory ego]. Being free from grasping, one is not troubled. Being untroubled, one is by oneself set free. Thus one realizes, 'Rebirth is destroyed, lived is the highest life, done is the task. There is no more of this [suffering] to come.'

 

"This, Ananda, is the proper approach to the uprooting of all conceits [delusions]."

 

The Heart of Wisdom Sutra

(COMMENTARY)

The later Mahayana tradition says all of this much more cryptically in the "Perfection of Wisdom" literature (Prajna Paramita), epitomized in the Heart Sutra.

 

There the Five Aggregates of Clinging are laid bare: form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are empty. 

 

That is, they are devoid of a "self" through and through. Illusion exists. These constituents of being/becoming are generally regarded as a "self" by untaught, ordinary worldlings.

 

But because they are impermanent and unsatisfactory (disappointing), it is incorrect to regard them as personal. They are impersonal (not-self), beyond our control, brought into transient or momentary existence by causes and conditions. They do not arise by themselves but are brought into being by causes and conditions, which is to say they are dependently originated or arisen. 

 

All of this happens again and again based on ignorance. When liberating-insight arises, enlightenment dawns, and all suffering is brought to an end.

Buddhism's "Mind Only" School (video)

Wisdom Quarterly; Vsauce (Twitter)/Collab; Barbara O'Brien (Buddhism.About.com)

(Vsauce) How can we know anything? Epistemology is the serious study of this question.

 

Aggregates (heaps) are not-self!

The Mahayana philosophy of Yogacara (Sanskrit, "application of yoga") teaches that the reality we think we perceive does not exist except as as a process of knowing. 

 

Phenomena [dharmas], anything that can be experienced, have no reality in themselves. At the same time, there is no "experiencer" who experiences except as a process of mind.

 

If there is no experiencer and nothing to experience, how can anything seem to be? What is it that knows? This "knowing" is explained by alaya-vijnana, "store consciousness," which is a function of the fifth aggregate (skandha) of clinging [namely, "consciousness" or viññāna]. 

 

Very briefly, it is in this "storehouse" that mental phenomena are tied together to create the deception of external existence.

• [Hinduism was worked into Mahayana Buddhism to maintain that somewhere, somehow there really is a timeless self (atman, atta), a "higher self," an eternal soul, something to identify with or cling to, such as consciousness itself. But consciousness is an impermanent process, not a self. Clinging to assumptions, to long held misperceptions, must be seen through and replaced with the "perfection of wisdom" (prajna-paramita), which means directly perceiving not-self (an-atta or shūnyatā, suchness, thusness, voidness, emptiness) as epitomized in the famous Heart Sutra.]

Yogacara emerged in India in the 2nd or 3d century and reached its zenith in the 4th to 6th centuries. Originally it was a rival to the philosophy of Madhyamika, but eventually the two philosophies merged.

Both philosophies were enormously influential in the development of Mahayana Buddhism. It is a school or tradition also known as Vijnanavada (Sanskrit, "The School That Teaches Knowing" [literally, "Teaching of Consciousness"]), Chittamatra (Sanskrit, "Mind Only")